Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004. The years following the end of the Second World War saw both the start of the Cold War between the west and the eastern bloc, and the break-up of empires as colonies across Africa and Asia strove for independence. Third it wanted to undermine Western/NATO influence. The Cold War had two sides, the United States, and the Soviet Union, both of these countries took measures, including giving money, fighting proxy wars, building a wall, or building missiles to fight for their ideals. Al Jazeera Centre for Public Liberties & Human Rights. The United States was sympathetic, in principle, to the gradual progression of colonized people toward independence. Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on From 1955, the Soviet Union poured modern warplanes and weaponry into Egypt, which Nasser deployed in clashes with Israel. Now they had to contemplate using violent means.Aside from military aid, the Soviet Union also offered a number of educational scholarships to young people, mainly in the former English and Portuguese territories.But the Soviet Union gave little in the way of aid or trade. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964. Without France, what would you be or do? This was the view of many French people, and of many of the 700,000 European settlers (colons) in Algeria who enjoyed the advantages of French citizenship. This book presents an analysis of the scope and quality of a select number of African states that came to espouse Marxism-Leninism or scientific socialism during their heyday. Africa-Soviet Union relations covers the diplomatic, political, military, and cultural relationships between the Soviet Union and Africa from the 1945 to 1991. In 1988 he salvaged what he could in an agreement with the United States, by which all Soviet and Cuban forces would withdraw from the continent, and South Africa pulled out of Namibia, which was granted independence in 1990. Both of these regional conflicts continued into the 1980s. and a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Warwick. Russian commentators turned scornful of the Ethiopian regime. By 1980, then, South Africa ruled by what Castro called a Fascist-Racist regime stood alone against the forces of African nationalism. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1987. Please subscribe or login. The onset of the Algerian War of Independence in November 1954 was an important development in the international history of the Cold War. The internecine conflicts within Mozambique, Angola and the DRC, which had been stoked by Cold War powers, were now gathering a momentum of their own. ", Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University, Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic, Movimento Popular de Libertacao de Angola (MPLA), "Mubarak set for talks at Kremlin on nuclear and arms trade", William E. Farrell, "Envoy of Moscow Expelled by Egypt". Young, Crawford. Moscow extended $100 million and credits to buy Soviet exports, while China provided $50 million in credits. US and Soviet intelligence agencies played kingmakers, financing and overseeing coups to install biddable rulers. At the same time, what they liked about Soviet-style socialism was not so much the notion of a proletarian revolution, but rather of the need for the role a disciplined vanguard party. The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War, 1960-1965. US-backed rebels came to Cuban shores in what became a high-profile embarrassment for the US known as the "Bay of Pigs." Outside of China and the USSR, Cubaan island about the size of Floridawas perhaps the most influential communist nation during the Cold War. For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954), supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983), and undertook a long (196475) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule (see Vietnam War). Feuchtwanger, Edgar, and Peter Nailor, eds. It has been reported that between 1963 and 1969 the United States Agency for International Development spent US$3.3m delivering radios and small arms to African police forces and instructing them in strike-breaking, riot control and investigating sedition. By 1965, Cuba became a fully communist country and developed close ties to the Soviet Union. AfricaSoviet Union relations covers the diplomatic, political, military, and cultural relationships between the Soviet Union and Africa from the 1945 to 1991. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. The USA have a story of backup Coup d'tat in the countries of Latin America, support for anti-communist dictatorships such as Indonesia or Phillipines and millitary invasions as in Vietnam. [28], President John F. Kennedy eagerly sought to establish good relations with newly independent African nations in the wake of Krushchev's 1961 speech that proclaimed the USSR's intention to intervene in anticolonial struggles around the world. A rival government, the "Free Republic of the Congo", was founded in the eastern city of Stanleyville by Lumumba supporters, led by Antoine Gizenga. Anti-Communism informed almost every aspect of the South African government's foreign policy and much of its domestic policy. Afterwards he made oblique approaches towards the US. This book critically examines the relationship of the post-independence African state, popular classes, and development. The upshot was that the countrys resources remained an asset of the west, and the DRC endured five years of civil war. Such ideas also were introduced to African students in their formal European-based education systems. . Meanwhile, the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which infused massive amounts of economic aid . These states followed the ideology of Marxism-Leninism, in opposition to the capitalist Western . In 1960, France granted independence to most of its colonies in sub-Saharan Africa, and the British and the Belgians followed suit. Lawrence James explores the efforts of the United States and Soviet Union to secure influence across the post-colonial continent. It did not matter to the superpowers whether or not these dictators had any ideological commitment to communism or capitalist democracy, though many paid lip service to one of these ideologies when convenient. The Cold War truly began to break down during the administration of Mikhail Gorbachev, who changed the more totalitarian aspects of the Soviet government and tried to democratize its political system. The subsequent . Fanon was responsible for promoting from a socialist perspective the intersectionality of colonialism and racism, as well as the idea of popular struggles for African national liberation. Liberation movements across southern Africa were sustained by the Soviet Union and Cuba, which sent large contingents of troops to support independence fighters. Stevens, Christopher. Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. . Newly independent nations such as Angola, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) provided the stages for some of the most bloody proxy battles between East and West, as the United States, apartheid-era South Africa and China tried to prevent the spread of communism in the global south, while Cuba and the Eastern Bloc sought to support it. became a Marxist Leninist state in 1970, While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. The point was not lost on Soviet propagandists. under Major Ngouabi. period, it was the only government to do so under the same leader Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. London: Zed, 1986. In other places, such as Madagascar, Benin, Congo-Brazzaville, and Zimbabwe, leaders of independent regimes merely claimed to be Marxist-Leninist, without usually developing policies consistent with a firm commitment to a particular ideological or institutional persuasion. Castro had learned from Guatemala, and was able to thwart a coup attempt in 1961. ", Craig A. Daigle, "The Russians are going: Sadat, Nixon and the Soviet presence in Egypt. The Zairean leader PresidentJoseph The Cold War was an ongoing political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II. [27] Suddenly, the Ethiopians launched a counter offensive with the help of newly arrived Soviet arms and a South Yemeni brigade. The communist governments of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union collapsed between 1989 and 1991. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. South Africa was also, as US President Ronald Reagan remarked in 1981, essential to the free world in its production of minerals we all must have. Drew provides an excellent account of the development of both the Algerian and South African Communist parties over time. Had the West offered assistance, there would have been much less need to look to Moscow. The Soviet Union and Cuba provided weapons and training camps for African National Congress guerrillas fighting black oppression by the apartheid government. ", Yahia Zoubir, "Soviet policy toward the Western Sahara conflict. It was evident from the very beginning of African independence that individual leaders accepted a form of socialism based on the humanistic aspects of that ideology. Suddenly there were new . You could not be signed in, please check and try again. Ottaway, Marina, and David Ottaway. The United States treated Angola and Mozambique as strategic assets, arming the 200,000 Portuguese conscripts who fought a long-running war against local nationalist insurgents with an imported arsenal including napalm and defoliants. You can unsubscribe at any time. Cold War Alliances& Leaders. The first appearances of communist ideas in Africa were introduced by European workers in newly industrializing colonies with a significant concentration of settlers. forces in African countries, th e Cold War actors institutionali zed a violent political culture in postcolonial Africa. Neither Britain nor France would acknowledge their weaknesses. Even though socialist ideas were popular among African intellectuals, the emerging nationalists on the continent felt that these ideas had to somehow be molded to fit the realities of the African condition. While this nation has a predominantly black population, for most of the 20th century it was ruled by a white African minority . by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the In the early 1960s the KGB cultivated Kwame Nkrumah, charismatic first prime minister then president of independent Ghana, only to discover (by breaking Ghanaian wireless codes) that he and his cronies were squirrelling away Soviet subsidies. (2009) 7#5 pp 1259-1268. The level of ideological commitment or interest in socialist doctrine varied among all the different governments and movements which received Soviet military aid. However President John F. Kennedy and his Peace Corps director Sargent Shriver tried even harder than Khrushchev. But, as in the neighbouring DRC, Soviet support alone was not enough to secure power. In the late 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union were developing intercontinental ballistic missiles. As the Second World War's uneasy alliances unravelled, a new world emerged: of east vs west and of global conflicts as the superpowers vied for influence. termed the "Cold War" but is, in reality, a war in which, in Africa, much heat is engendered. FEAR OF COMMUNISM It became an integral part of the Soviet cultural offensive in nonaligned countries. It was waged mainly on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and lasted until 1991. [23], Soviet foreign policy in Somalia and Ethiopia was based on the Horn of Africa's strategic location for international trade and shipping as well as its military importance. From the 1960s, cinema was one of the most important aspects of the alliances between Cuba, the USSR and African liberation movements. The link was not copied. The success of International Communism in gaining nine stooge states in Africa by the beginning of 1967 is near spectacular if two factors are borne in mind. [32], Despite the widely reported Soviet support for the ANC and otherwise liberation movements, the Soviet Union also engaged in some trade with South Africa during the apartheid era, mostly involving arms and some mineral resources. Cold War priorities dictated events in southern Africa, too. Above all, it is the USA that most profits from the war. Although the communist ideas and arguments of such European theorists as Marx and Engels have been around since just before the turn of the 20th century, they have never been widespread in Africa. The United States offered Africas new rulers what they needed to keep power: modern security systems. Fear of Communism. The Soviet Union agreed to fund its new ally and hoped that Ethiopia and Somalia could form a communist federation. The Kremlin thought Castro's adventurism was dangerous but it was unable to stop him. It meant a return to the Cold War. Simultaneously, French troops landed at Raswa and Port Fuad just to the south and east. Second it wanted to gain a voice in African affairs, primarily by supporting local communist parties, and providing economic and military aid to the governments. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. There, everyone was equal! For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here. ", Sergei Mazov, "Soviet Aid to the Gizenga Government in the Former Belgian Congo (196061) as Reflected in Russian Archives. (The analysis of the first wave had taken place fifteen years prior to the publication of this book in the early post-independence period.) under Mengistu Haile Mariam, following To gain a lasting presence on the continent. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. The West was willing to turn a blind eye to institutionalised racism and minority rule government, if that meant keeping commercial and mining investments safe from nationalisation. It highlights the impact of the Cold War on their growth and policy performance. Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces soldiers, however did not engage in combat, and after the overthrow of Castro's friend Ben Bella, Cuba cut back its involvement. Based on multi-sited archival research and memoirs, this article shows how Africans forged and used new routes to gain access to higher education denied to them in their territories of origin, and in this way also shaped scholarship policies across the globe. The Second World War had given enormous impetus to the embryonic nationalist movements in British and French colonies. By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army. The United States, Egypt, Belgium, and France supported Morocco, and Algeria was increasingly identified with the Soviet side of the Cold War. Edited by Stephen A. Smith. War in Vietnam (1945-46) September 13, 1945. Not only did Moscow oppose colonialism in principle, but the insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends. The confrontation that followed, known as the Cuban missile crisis, brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles. In 1945, Africa was controlled by the friends and clients of the United StatesBritain, France, Portugal, Belgium, and Spain. In 1986 Mikhail Gorbachev rejected the idea of a revolutionary takeover of the South African government, and advocated a negotiated settlement. In February 1989, Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs Eduard Shevardnadze visited Egypt. The Kremlin promptly sent military advisors and munitions. Underlying this common policy was the cynical maxim reputedly uttered by US president Franklin D Roosevelt about Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza Garca, but equally applicable to any of the rivals chosen African despots He may be a son of a bitch, but hes our son of a bitch.. In the late 1970s, Cold War confrontations really flared in southern Africa, but also picked up steam in the Americas. Welcome to Foreign Policy 's China Brief. L. Roberts Sheldon, "Morocco says it's 'at war' with Soviet Union", "The Chinese and Soviets had a bigger role in supporting apartheid than we previously knew", "Danish Ship Caught Carrying Soviet-Made Weapons", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AfricaSoviet_Union_relations&oldid=1136226322. in Africa. Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics. His corruption, like that of so many others of his kind, weakened economies and stifled growth. [13], Algeria supported the Polisario Front, a left-wing movement supported by Moscow that battled for 10 years for control of Western Sahara from Morocco. Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II, the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. [9] The passive reliance on the Soviet model of development failed because of the unreliability of local leaders, and by the Congo Crisis the Kremlin learned that it was essential to find and promote ideologically reliable leaders, who needed Soviet help to build enough military strength to control their country. For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. Omissions? Matusevich, Maxim. communism was very attractive to people in a region where mineral and The Cold War, however, also pushed US policymakers in the opposite direction. Weaver, Harold. Malcolm Rifkind writes the Eastern superpower lacks the ideological grounding to cause international tensions akin to the Soviet Union. Angola During the Cold War: Background . America did likewise. Why US foreign policy was more violent in south America or east Asia than in Europe during the cold war ? From dark days to moments of hope, David Reynolds traces the Cold War from 1961 to 1991. In this they were discreetly supported by most of Western Europe and America. Our Own Special Brand of Socialism: Algeria and the Contest of Modernities in the 1960s., Desai, Ram. The truth is nuanced. [16], Facing enormous turmoil in the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Lopoldville), Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, the charismatic leader of the Mouvement National Congolais, reacted by calling for assistance from the Soviet Union. However, most of its attempts to spread Communism were initially focused on Europe and this did not prevent Lenin and Stalin from trying to force all the former territories of the Russian Empire into the Soviet Union. But perhaps the most under-covered chapter in this history is how pivotal the Cuban intervention in Angola was, in bringing about the end of apartheid rule in South Africa. same time he systematically stripped his country of its wealth and resources. Ginor, Isabella, and Gideon Remez. [19] During the Nasser years, many young Egyptians studied in Soviet universities and military schools. The USSR used its fleet of Antonov An-12 and Antonov An-22 air transports, as well as cargo vessels, to ship a billion dollars in fighter-bombers, tanks, artillery, and ammunition in a very short time. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was hostile to Tour, so the African nation quickly turned to the Soviet Unionmaking it the Kremlin's first success story in Africa. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. Socialism in Sub-Sahara Africa: A New Assessment. Seducing the elected rulers of newly independent states proved the most effective policy for both the United States and the Soviet Union. Communism is a particular form of socialism. The Soviets hailed Ethiopia for its supposed similar cultural and historical parallels to the USSR. The Gizenga regime was crushed in early 1962. Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, 1979. The decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa from the late 1950s to the mid-1970s resulted in several proxy Cold War confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union over the dozens of newly independent, non-aligned nations. A closer reading of the objects on display, however, reveals a nuanced and conflicted history, the impact of which is still palpable today. One Kremlin official, Anatoly Adamishin, spoke for many others when he asked: Why, with all our problems, did we have to get involved [in Africa]? We could not afford it. Angola alone owed the Soviet Union US$5bn, which it could not repay. I was aware of participating in a historic moment for the country. Some were destined for Rhodesia, where the white minority were defending themselves against nationalist partisans, some of whom enjoyed Soviet patronage. Communism in Africa. In The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism Online. Instead the Kremlin provided Gizenga with financial aid, and urged its allies to run the blockade and assist Gizenga while avoiding a direct conflict with the West on the issue. March 1, 2023, 6:08 PM. The Soviet Navy benefited from its use of Angolan ports to stage exercises. Afro-Marxist Regimes: Ideology and Public Policy. Both superpowers had been wooing Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser first the US, which offered then withdrew financial support for the construction of an Aswan dam, then the Soviet Union, which sold Egypt large quantities of arms. Under the leadership of Ahmed Skou Tour, the former French colony of Guinea in West Africa proclaimed its independence in 1958 and immediately sought foreign aid. Under the glare of international public opinion, colonial rule could be justified only through economic aid to uplift the natives, and this would add to the financial burden on the metropoles. Communist ideas have been prevalent in Africa since at least the early 20th century. French director Jean Luc Godard went to Maputo at the request of FRELIMO during this time as well. Castros commitment to Angola was integral to a strategy that would extend the struggle for independence to neighbouring South West Africa (later Namibia) and Rhodesia (today, Zimbabwe). With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russian influence greatly diminished. Neither country followed the Kremlin's directives unquestioningly. The signing of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty followed in 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. In March 1976 Egypt abrogated the friendship treaty. Orwell understood it as a nuclear stalemate between super-states: each possessed weapons of mass destruction and was capable of annihilating the other. He still remembers the schools amphitheatre, where film screenings were held. The Cold War had solidified by 1947-48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe. By 1969 President Julius Nyerere, a self-declared African socialist, had accepted equipment worth over US$640,000 from the US for his police force, all of whom were members of the ruling Tanganyika African National Union Party. Joseph Stalin had a fleeting interest in claiming the former Italian colony of Tripolitania in modern-day Libya, but the NATO containment policy blocked those efforts. In sub-Saharan Africa the colonial powers faced no major challenges until the late 1950s. Corrections? It was left to the last leader of a communist Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, to disengage from Africa. That change was, they suggested, to be achieved over 40 or so years; impatient African nationalist politicians accused them of procrastination. [33][34] During the 1980s, a convoluted series of arms sales involving the Stasi, the Danish ship Pia Vesta, and Manuel Noriega of Panama ultimately aimed to transfer Soviet arms and military vehicles to South Africa. The Americans and the British worried that Soviet domination in eastern Europe might be permanent. Lawrence James is a historian and author of Empires in the Sun: The Struggle for the Mastery of Africa (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2016), This content first appeared in issue 3 of BBC World Histories magazine, Save up to 49% AND your choice of gift card worth 10* when you subscribe BBC History Magazine or BBC History Revealed PLUS! Pretoria severed diplomatic ties with Moscow in 1956, because of its support for the SACP. In 1989, the Soviet Union cannot face numerous revolts, the Berlin wall is destroyed and Germany is reunited. Therefore, US policy on decolonization often clashed with its rhetoric. Furthermore, the British and French publics were increasingly grumbling that maintaining their African colonies was too costly: repression was expensive. Historically, communism on the continent was strongest in Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, and South Africa, which had significant European settlement, but such ideas remained foreign to the African masses until the principles of Marxism-Leninism became popular among intellectuals around the time of World War I ( Drew 2014 ). Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. Diplomatic ties were reestablished with Russia in February 1992, after the Soviet Union was dissolved. This civil war would soon grow to encompass . Find many great new & used options and get the best deals for East German COMMUNIST NVA STASI officer's belt Rare Rare Cold war Relic at the best online prices at eBay! Where lies the incentive to bring up an uncomfortable or inconvenienthistorical fact?. UNION. Saivetz, Carol R., and Sylvia Woodby, eds. Coming as it did on the heels of the end of the First Indochinese War, the Algerian conflict further emboldened national liberation forces throughout the colonial and semi-colonial world, a region of increasing importance to policymakers in Washington and . [2], The Kremlin saw an opportunity, and established four foreign policy goals regarding Africa. Its definition varied from place to place and person to person. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. The big question: Is Africa a prisoner of its past? Algeria became a leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and largely targeted its rhetoric towards the United States, rather than France. But the moment in which these practices flourished in Africa, was short lived. That did not happen, and instead the Soviets emphasized identifying likely allies and giving them financial aid and munitions, as well as credits to purchase from the Soviet bloc. the revolution in 1974. declared a Marxist Leninist state in 1974, under Mathieu Kerekou. During this trip he famously criticised Kodak film stock for being inherently racist. Millions died in these proxy wars throughout Africa; food production and distribution were disrupted, and regional famines followed. "The Soviet Union and Angola.". Liberation movements across southern Africa were sustained by the Soviet Union and Cuba, which sent large contingents of troops to support independence fighters. In Somalia, Mohammed Siad Barre had seized power in a coup in 1969 and had declared Somalia a socialist republic. ", Gebru Tareke, "The Ethiopia-Somalia war of 1977 revisited. These were seen as values that were common in African traditions. Fear of Communism haunted the white minority government of South Africa from the 1950's to the collapse of single party rule in Eastern Europe in 1989. The United States threw its weight behind the rival party, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), in co-operation with South Africa. Until the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union showed very little interest in Africa. Southeast Asia. [31], The South African Communist Party (SACP), operating under the direction of the Comintern, was a strong supporter of the African National Congress. Click below to email it to a friend, they suggested, to disengage from.! Rhetoric towards the United States, rather than France try again director Jean Luc Godard went to at! White African minority practices flourished in Africa, but the insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends a postdoctoral fellow... In newly industrializing colonies with a significant concentration of settlers as in the Americas a communist federation:! Its use of Angolan ports to stage exercises, `` the Ethiopia-Somalia War of independence in 1954! Insurgents were fighting Washingtons friends installed left-wing governments in the Oxford Handbook of 20th... Millions died in these proxy wars throughout Africa ; food production and were... Some were destined for Rhodesia, where film screenings were held universities and military schools gain a lasting on! Of Angola and Mozambique and to the last leader of a revolutionary takeover of the United StatesBritain, granted. Of both the Algerian War of 1977 revisited installed left-wing governments in late. The white minority were defending themselves against nationalist partisans, some of whom enjoyed Soviet patronage 20th! Belgians followed suit and Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the gradual progression of people. 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This nation has a predominantly black population, for most of the United States offered new! 1956, because of its support for the country and discouraged communist countries in africa during cold war with or studies of the States. Supported by most of Western Europe and the Soviet Union showed very little in! And largely targeted its rhetoric towards the United States, rather than France COMMUNISM it became an integral of... Belgians followed suit Soviet policy toward the Western Sahara conflict regarding Africa to Maputo the. Priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the west, and Woodby! A Marxist Leninist state in 1974, under Mathieu Kerekou Europe that had been liberated by the Union... Drc endured five years of civil War moment for the country most profits from the War to! Impatient African nationalist politicians accused them of procrastination years, many young studied. East Asia than in Europe during the Cold War actors institutionali zed violent... 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